L. J. Cronbach is the social psychologist who first described, and labeled implicit personality theory, maintained that when individuals perceive traits in others, they make assumptions that other (possibly related) traits are also present. These assumptions can often be overestimated. For example, it may be assumed that because a person demonstrates a sense of humor that they are also intelligent. This pattern of assumptions may be an accurate or distorted portrayal of reality that is overemphasized (Dunning, 2007).
Implicit personality theory, or assuming certain personality traits naturally co-occur with other traits, can take the form of the halo effect. The halo effect is the tendency to attribute many positive traits to an individual who has shown but a few (Dunning, 2007). An example would be a child who displays courteous manners in the classroom might be assumed to be kind, artistic, or even gifted. Another aspect of implicit personality theory is the tendency to attribute personality characteristics due to appearance (2007); for example, an overweight individual may be assumed to be lazy, unintelligent, or lacking self-control.
Impression Management
How we are perceived and evaluated by others is important to our reputation in society (Leary & Kowalski, 1990). If being perceived as physically attractive may lead to assumptions of intelligence and professionalism, then it is beneficial to manage the impression given. The tendency to attribute personality characteristics due to assumptions or appearance (implicit personality theory) motivates impression management – the effort to control or manipulate how others perceive us. Impression management, also called self-presentation, is our effort to not only create a good first impression, but to control and maintain how we are known. This happens two-fold: 1) by monitoring the impressions we give others, and 2) altering behavior to accomplish the impression or perception desired (1990). Interestingly, it seems that most do not pay mindful attention to their patterns of self-presentation because they are “overlearned, habitual, and unconscious,” but may still be quick to intuit negative social appraisals of others (1990, p. 37). However, if an individual’s profession demands careful attention to self-promotion - such as a celebrity, one held up as a role model (like an athlete), or a political leader – purposeful impression management (or the lack thereof) may determine success or failure.
Case Example: Elizabeth I
An example of purposeful impression management can be found in Elizabeth I, Queen of England from 1558 – 1603 CE (Ellis, 2020). Despite keeping both officials and commoners in suspense as to her choice of marriage partner, she ultimately developed a longstanding mythology as the ‘virgin queen’ that would endure long after her death (King, 1990). According to William Camden, a contemporary biographer, Elizabeth solidified her intentions in a speech to the House of Commons, “And therefore it is, that I have made the choyce [sic] of this kinde [sic] of life, which is most free, and agreeable for such humane [sic] affaires [sic] as may tend to his [God’s] service … and this is that I thought, then that I was a private person … I am already bound unto a Husband, which is the Kingdome [sic] of England …” (1990, p. 33). She declared further she would have no children, but that the people of England were her children, and that she would be “a virgin pure until her Death” (1990, p. 33). While Camden’s biography may be considered hagiographical in nature, it is an indication of how the persona of the queen was managed and manifested. In reality, she entertained the possibility of marriage for the first third of her reign; however, by the time she aged beyond childbearing years, the image of a virgin queen wedded to her nation was well established (1990).
Scholars agree that Elizabeth crafted and moved the political narrative about herself through language and imagery (King, 1990). During her reign, Elizabeth needed to demonstrate power in a patriarchal context. She fashioned herself, through physical presentation and iconography, as a queen who sacrificed her personal desires and needs to serve her people. Portraits of a perpetual youthful maiden, forever pure and virginal, translated into a paradoxical symbol of power in the context of masculine dominance (King, 1990). Elizabeth’s virginal imagery was easily relatable to that of the biblical Mary, the mother of Jesus. This granted the impression of a Mary-figure for the newly established state religion of Protestantism, spawned Gloriana cults, and endowed Elizabeth with the characteristics of youthfulness, humility, and motherhood (an example of implicit personality theory) while encouraging honor and veneration of her power and authority (1990). Further, Elizabeth communicated strongly through speeches and poetry, that she was “remote, unattainable, chaste, but above all, as authoritative and superior” (Seber, 2014), reflecting attributes of the biblical Mary. I suspect she actively managed her image to maintain power against male pressure (as a female she would have had to submit to the authority of a husband, therefore losing her position an authoritative queen), from both her own country and others, as well as stall for time while fortifying her image as unshakable. The two modes of communication - visual imagery and formal speech/poetic writing – used the assumptions of attributes (implicit personality theory) along with careful speech and presentation to create the necessary impression of a beloved but powerful monarch.
Social Change and Welfare
The implication of impression management to social change (and/or welfare) is that an individual may not be fully authentic in their presentation of their intentions; people may be persuaded based upon a false or misleading impression or assumption of personality traits. For example, celebrities, such as the actor George Clooney, engage in philanthropic, diplomatic endeavors. He has been a United Nations Messenger of Peace, raising awareness about the genocide occurring in the Sudan and South Sudan. Despite criticism of celebrity advocacy for awareness of human rights atrocities in foreign countries (Kogen, 2015), his actions and choices of interviews have demonstrated implicit personality theory and his impression management strategy – he is a successful and popular actor, therefore it could be assumed that he is knowledgeable about global politics and can possibly suggest answers to pressing problems (even though he has no education, training, or political experience in global diplomacy; 2015). This could be interpreted as the halo effect, where many other positive attributes are attributed to him due to his appearance, celebrity status, or financial success. But, more than that, it makes him appear as a compassionate advocate for human rights, which adds to his audience’s favorable impression of him. He may have good intentions – to raise awareness of human rights violations – however, by emphasizing the “global other” that needs the West (namely the U.S.) to save them from their own naivete, he (and others like him) may be reinforcing a harmful, potentially oppressive narrative (Kogen, 2015). But, in the end, he may be more interested in building a favorable impression with his audience than finding or facilitating solutions to dictatorial atrocities (2015).
Ultimately, to effect social change or be an advocate for social welfare, an individual’s intentions must be crystal clear. Celebrities, due to their public visibility, may provide some causes the public voice needed for widespread awareness (Kogen, 2015); however, social welfare may be better served by those who are educated and specifically trained to appropriately deal with humanitarian efforts and are not interested in using their advocacy to build or maintain their celebrity persona.
Personal Construction of an Image
Throughout this paper I have suggested that impression management – the effort to control how others perceive us – is motivated by implicit personality theory (the tendency to assume that certain traits co-occur with other traits, behaviors, or appearances). I, too, have attempted to manage the impression I give to others. Specifically, I carefully construct online discussion posts and responses, knowing that what I post and submit is the only chance I get to influence the perception or impression of me. I am careful to edit for spelling and grammatical errors because I know those typos can degrade the impression I present (another example of implicit personality theory: typos may be assumed to be a lack of intelligence or writing ability). I edit content so posts are as concise and easy to read as possible, while still trying to meet all the requirements of the assignment. The downside to this is that I can come across as rather formal and stuffy. I sometimes loosen up and use more casual language, which I hope sounds more ‘warm and friendly,’ but I do not use this strategy until I feel more comfortable with the group, and most certainly not in the introduction nor first few weeks of the course. Perhaps I am fearful that I will not be taken seriously.
In a study of impression management and online graduate students, researchers found that 52 percent of students used self-promotion as a strategy in discussion posts, followed by exemplification, where students go beyond expectations to demonstrate commitment to studies (Crandall & Cunningham, 2017). Other strategies included ingratiation (to appear likable) and supplication (expressing vulnerability or neediness), which was used the least. I found it noteworthy that the findings were consistent for both first time graduate students and those who were well into their program of study (2017). Personally, I tend to use the self-promotion strategy less-so than the exemplification strategy – it is my belief that my work will speak louder than anything I can say about my previous accomplishments. And further, it feels very awkward to ‘toot my own horn,’ so to speak.
In my previous program, students were required to complete online courses and a few hybrid courses. We attended a week-long residency at the university to meet face-to-face and participate in lectures and workshops. It was amazing to meet my fellow classmates that I only knew through their online posts and responses. I was surprised to hear that the impression some of my classmates reported was that I seemed rather ‘intimidating,’ but they were careful to say that I was not intimidating in person. I have thought about that quite a lot, but since my main mode of ‘survival’ is exemplification, I am still at a loss as to how to present myself differently, especially online. Frankly, I do not feel very accomplished, certainly not at the level of Elizabeth I or George Clooney, at managing the impression I give to others.
References
Crandall, H., & Cunningham, C. (2017). Performing graduate student: Impression management in online discussion forums. The Northwest Journal of Communication, 45(1), 53-73. https://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=128619879&site=eds-live&scope=site
Dunning, D. (2007). Implicit personality theory. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs’ (Eds.) Encyclopedia of social psychology (pp. 466-467). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://web-a-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook?sid=dc893439-bf64-404a-8767-0503b707ddb2%40sessionmgr4006&ppid=pp_466&vid=0&format=EB
Ellis, R. P. (2020). Elizabeth I. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia. https://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ers&AN=88367412&site=eds-live&scope=site
King, J. N. (1990). Queen Elizabeth I: Representations of the virgin queen. Renaissance Quarterly, 43(1), 30-74. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/stable/2861792?seq=16#metadata_info_tab_contents
Kogen, L. (2015). For the public good or just good publicity? Celebrity diplomacy and the ethics of representation. Mass Communication and Society, 18(1), 37-57. https://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=100696752&site=eds-live&scope=site
Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107(1), 34-37. https://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=1990-12233-001&site=eds-live&scope=site
Seber, H. (2014). Queen Elizabeth I’s self-representation through the Petrarchan convention. Journal of Faculty of Letters, 31(1), 227-238. https://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hlh&AN=95509765&site=eds-live&scope=site
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