Opinion: Student Debt Relief

 After reading and listening to the differing opinions about the newly announced government student debt relief, I have come to some conclusions.

Student debt forgiveness is basically writing off a portion of predatory interest that the government has allowed. It will not help everyone, especially those with large amounts of debt (the top end of qualifying loan relief is $20k). Nor will it help those those who tried to manage their debt load by refinancing to private loans. Those folks are just stuck, and it is all so unjust.

Higher education is required to fill needed professional services such as medical and mental health care, engineering/architecture, law/political science, etc. Without free or reduced-cost higher education opportunity, these necessary societal positions will be filled with only those that can afford education (those in higher income levels), but also will be more and more unavailable to those who cannot (which further entrenches an oppressive class system). This will greatly reduce the diversity of life experience brought to these important professions.

Currently, I have a friend who is accumulating a large amount of student debt going through medical school. My family physician is still carrying a large debt load after years of working, and I have had adjunct professors in university tell of their ongoing student debt load. AARP just ran an article talking about the many people that carry student debt into retirement. This circumstance of taking on student debt to get necessary professional degrees can be a deterrent to potential students. Without doctors and teachers, what then? Further, I don’t believe that people should be put in a position to have to justify why they want to earn higher degrees; society admires those with degrees, but then demands that higher education be justified: “They chose to go to college, now they must pay the bill for their choices!” How does a person justify why they want to undergo all the education and internship required to become a physician? Or a lawyer? Is it selfish to desire to be an accountant or computer tech instead of a restaurant worker, security guard, or cashier?

Trade schools are very important to our society’s function and should also be considered ‘higher education.’ However, they are not the answer for those who cannot afford traditional college or university. These trade schools often charge stiff tuition fees and encourage potential students (and families) to pay with federal student loans (I am speaking from experience - my middle son went to trade school and came out with student debt).

The bottom line for me is that if higher education/trade school is required by most employers offering jobs that pay a living wage (not to mention offering health insurance, but that’s another argument), then that education needs to be available to all who want to work for higher degrees and training without committing to crippling long-term debt.

In the current circumstance, one can choose to go to college/trade school to get a better job but agrees to staggering (life) debt to do so. Or one can choose not to attend college/trade school after high school and be restricted to minimum or lower paying non-professional jobs. There is nothing wrong with working in customer service or retail, other than the low pay – and that is fine if that is what a person wants to do. But choosing between lifelong debt or living at poverty level is not much of a choice in my view – it is servitude to the upper classes and elites that have the discretionary resources to pay for higher education out of pocket (who, I believe, are in those classes mostly due to inheritance, the benefit of low-cost education, or the profit from the work of low-paid workers).

I believe the government should, yes with taxpayer’s money, invest in the higher education needs of the society to make a way for all to work towards their education and professional goals. This would go a long way to make our country a more prosperous and equitable place to live. 

Full disclosure: I have student debt from the education that is required for my new employment in the field of mental health care; as it stands now, I will be working to pay my federal student debt bill. My youngest son has chosen not to go to college yet because he hesitant to incur student debt and is somewhat stuck in a low-paying job; for him, there are few viable options.

The only way out of this mess is student debt forgiveness, doing away with predatory interest on student loans, and reinstituting government supports for colleges, universities, and trade schools to keep tuition at manageable rates. Our society needs professionals, (not to mention educated citizens who can critically think,) and those professionals require higher education.

Of Sheep and Wolves

My experience is my experience. You can take it or leave it, but it did happen to me personally. I watched it happen to others before my experience, and I'm watching it happen to good people after, as well.

What am I talking about?

Spiritual abuse.

This issue is usually tied with negative cult groups. Consider the following explanation from wiki:

Spiritual abuse is a serious form of abuse which occurs when a person in a cult-religious authority or a person with a unique spiritual practice misleads and maltreats another person in the name of a deity or church or in the mystery of any spiritual concept. Spiritual abuse often refers to an abuser using spiritual or cult-religious rank in taking advantage of the victim's spirituality (mentality and passion on spiritual matters) by putting the victim in a state of unquestioning obedience to an abusive authority. Spiritual abuse refers to the use of spiritual knowledge to deprive, torture, degrade, isolate, control, or even kill others. It is used by evil minded spiritualists, sometimes, including cult-religious leaders to gain advantage or exercise control over others. Being an 'action of man', in worst case scenarios, spiritual abuse can otherwise be called 'spiritual terrorism'.

Spiritual abuse is the maltreatment of a person in the name of a god, deity, faith, cult-religion, or church, whether habitual or not, and includes any of the following:

Psychological and emotional abuse

Physical abuse that includes physical injury, deprivation of sustenance

Sexual abuse

Any act by deeds or words that demean, humiliate or shame the natural worth and dignity of a person as a human being

Submission to spiritual authority without any right to disagree; intimidation

Unreasonable control of a person's basic right to make a choice on spiritual matters

False accusation and repeated criticism by negatively labeling a person as disobedient, rebellious, lacking faith, demonized, apostate, enemy of the church or a deity

Prevention from practicing faith or Spiritualism

Isolation or separation from family and friends due to cult-religious or Spiritual affiliation

Exclusivity; dismissal of an outsider's criticism and labeling an outsider as an imaginary demon or devil

Withholding information and giving of information only to a selected few

Conformity to a dangerous or unnatural cult-religious view and practice

Hostility that includes shunning, (relational aggression, parental alienation) and persecution

Despite the comparative frequency of spiritual abuse, those types of behaviour and actions which are today classified as spiritual abuse can be seen to be prohibited in the major texts and scriptures of numerous cult-religious traditions. Indeed, in the Christian Bible, spiritually abusive behaviour is condemned as being one of the worst forms of sin due to its capacity to diminish or even to destroy an individual's relationship with a deity or a god.

Pretty serious, isn't it? As I look at this issue, and not only my own experience but those of others, as well, I see spiritual abuse happening in varying degrees. One doesn't have to be in a 'cult' to be abused spiritually. Even in mainline congregations, both large and small, this type of thing happens. I am not talking about folks simply getting their feelings hurt and leaving the congregation. I'm talking about good people submitting themselves under leadership with the best of intentions, attempting to fulfill the Scriptural edicts, and finding themselves in a situation of being taken advantage of, being bullied, having their character maligned and even being cut-off/isolated from worship and fellowship, both within and outside the congregation. Spiritual death.

I have observed in myself and others the result of this abuse. Feelings of betrayal, rejection, hurt, extreme stress and depression can lead to physical manifestations of deep emotional scarring. Depending upon the duration of the situation, effects can be even more damaging and long-term; fear of relationship and commitment, reluctance to participate in social situations, and clinical depression. But I think the worst result of spiritual abuse is a complete and total realization that all religion is simply the traditions of man and an unacceptable representation of the Holy One. It is most unfortunate that the children who witness abusive and manipulative behavior by leadership towards their parents come to that conclusion and reject a relationship with G-d altogether.

In my own experience, I didn't even realize it was happening to me; I simply felt astonishment and disbelief at the behavior of my religious leaders. These leaders, for the most part, were held in high regard for their wisdom, knowledge, and teaching skills. I even considered them my friends...good friends. As it came to pass, I watched person after person being targeted, mocked, and shunned, never thinking it would happen to me. Disagreeing with leadership, on any level, was not allowed. Ever changing definitions of pivotal sins, such as gossip and rebellion, caused confusion and further reliance on leadership for direction in any given situation. Biblical teaching was interlaced with manipulations and personal agendas, as well, targeting individuals (most especially those that had left or had been cut-off) in veiled language inflicting further pain and gently (and sometimes not so gently) encouraging the congregation to do the same. Increasingly legalistic accepted (expected) behavior, excluded even more, as it demanded conformity to the standards set by leadership and/or those regarded as pious in the congregation - all in the name of following Scripture. Amazingly, (in my case), these leaders desired diminishing numbers, weeding out the people they didn't like or don't 'fit' into their elite group. Sounds like junior high, but spiritual abuse goes beyond immaturity when people's lives are turned upside-down, families are torn apart and faith in G-d and 'His church' is shaken severely. That is, most certainly, an abuse of the position of religious leader.

This type of abuse is especially egregious - a deceptive set-up - because anyone choosing to attend a faith-based congregation comes with certain expectations of the leaders and people there, and rightly so. It is not out of the ordinary to expect leaders (especially) and others in the congregation (to a somewhat lesser degree) to be polite, kind, and loving, desiring to live a life devoted to their G-d by the standards set in the Bible. When those expectations aren't met, it leads to a growing distrust of religion and those who attend. People are not perfect, and certainly no one expects perfection. However, the problem of spiritual abuse and hypocrisy is far more (and deeper) than the normal push-and-pull of relationship.

David Johnson and Jeff VanVonderen in The Subtle Power of Spiritual Abuse describe the action: "It's possible to become so determined to defend a spiritual place of authority, a doctrine or a way of doing things that you wound and abuse anyone who questions, or disagrees, or doesn't 'behave' spiritually the way you want them to. When your words and actions tear down another, or attack or weaken a person's standing as a Christian- to gratify you, your position or your beliefs while at the same time weakening or harming another- that is spiritual abuse."

It is often referred to as a 'bad religious experience'. So many have had one - just start asking around and you'll see. I'm not into 'church-bashing', but it is a sad situation when you consider the greatest command for a believer is to love G-d and love your neighbor as yourself. If they are truly living by that command, then there must be a lot of people who want to be judged, have their character assassinated or want to be the subject of gossip.

"I have been abused by the church, been asked to leave a church, and then have listened to Pastors say that there are only 2 reasons people leave a church - 1. To build a church and 2. Because of pride. I've also heard pastors say that to leave a church or to go to another church is "committing spiritual adultery". That too, is so wrong ~ and un-Biblical." ~Janet W., victim

 

Personally, I have often heard it said that those that leave the congregation are in rebellion, most certainly against leadership, and even against G-d Himself. And, if they are in rebellion, the best thing to do is to cut them off completely, so they feel the isolation and grief of being apart from their friends and fellow believers in the community. That line of teaching, along with overt mocking of those that just drift away, will definitely cement in the minds of listeners a desire to never leave the community, that's for sure.

Hand in hand with spiritual abuse goes judgment. Severe judgment, by either leadership or fellow believers, is something that simply shouldn't be acceptable or allowed in faithful congregations or religious communities. Somehow, we move from humble confession and acceptance of salvation, to what we define as righteous living, to looking around to make sure everyone else is doing it right in our eyes. (And, don't even get me started on hypocrisy...) It's no wonder the world-at-large has such a poor opinion of the religious, truly.

So, is there any way one can avoid this type of abuse and harsh judgment and still stand in a congregation of worshiping believers? Unfortunately, I have no answer - I'm kind of cynical about it at this point, honestly. I do know this; if we turn our heads and allow abuse to continue, pretend it never happens, or excuse it because of our own personal needs or wants, we may later find ourselves the victim of such abuse.

So many have been hurt. So many have left religious fellowship never to return. Opting for a very personal relationship with G-d, studying on their own or even just trying to be a righteous person and love their neighbor, is so much safer than opening up to judgment, betrayal, harassment - abuse - in such a public arena.

I can't say I blame them.

 

March 2012

 

Implicit Personality Theory

L. J. Cronbach is the social psychologist who first described, and labeled implicit personality theory, maintained that when individuals perceive traits in others, they make assumptions that other (possibly related) traits are also present. These assumptions can often be overestimated. For example, it may be assumed that because a person demonstrates a sense of humor that they are also intelligent. This pattern of assumptions may be an accurate or distorted portrayal of reality that is overemphasized (Dunning, 2007).

Implicit personality theory, or assuming certain personality traits naturally co-occur with other traits, can take the form of the halo effect. The halo effect is the tendency to attribute many positive traits to an individual who has shown but a few (Dunning, 2007). An example would be a child who displays courteous manners in the classroom might be assumed to be kind, artistic, or even gifted. Another aspect of implicit personality theory is the tendency to attribute personality characteristics due to appearance (2007); for example, an overweight individual may be assumed to be lazy, unintelligent, or lacking self-control.

Impression Management

How we are perceived and evaluated by others is important to our reputation in society (Leary & Kowalski, 1990). If being perceived as physically attractive may lead to assumptions of intelligence and professionalism, then it is beneficial to manage the impression given. The tendency to attribute personality characteristics due to assumptions or appearance (implicit personality theory) motivates impression management – the effort to control or manipulate how others perceive us. Impression management, also called self-presentation, is our effort to not only create a good first impression, but to control and maintain how we are known. This happens two-fold: 1) by monitoring the impressions we give others, and 2) altering behavior to accomplish the impression or perception desired (1990). Interestingly, it seems that most do not pay mindful attention to their patterns of self-presentation because they are “overlearned, habitual, and unconscious,” but may still be quick to intuit negative social appraisals of others (1990, p. 37). However, if an individual’s profession demands careful attention to self-promotion - such as a celebrity, one held up as a role model (like an athlete), or a political leader – purposeful impression management (or the lack thereof) may determine success or failure.

Case Example: Elizabeth I

An example of purposeful impression management can be found in Elizabeth I, Queen of England from 1558 – 1603 CE (Ellis, 2020). Despite keeping both officials and commoners in suspense as to her choice of marriage partner, she ultimately developed a longstanding mythology as the ‘virgin queen’ that would endure long after her death (King, 1990). According to William Camden, a contemporary biographer, Elizabeth solidified her intentions in a speech to the House of Commons, “And therefore it is, that I have made the choyce [sic] of this kinde [sic] of life, which is most free, and agreeable for such humane [sic] affaires [sic] as may tend to his [God’s] service … and this is that I thought, then that I was a private person … I am already bound unto a Husband, which is the Kingdome [sic] of England …” (1990, p. 33). She declared further she would have no children, but that the people of England were her children, and that she would be “a virgin pure until her Death” (1990, p. 33). While Camden’s biography may be considered hagiographical in nature, it is an indication of how the persona of the queen was managed and manifested. In reality, she entertained the possibility of marriage for the first third of her reign; however, by the time she aged beyond childbearing years, the image of a virgin queen wedded to her nation was well established (1990).  

Scholars agree that Elizabeth crafted and moved the political narrative about herself through language and imagery (King, 1990). During her reign, Elizabeth needed to demonstrate power in a patriarchal context. She fashioned herself, through physical presentation and iconography, as a queen who sacrificed her personal desires and needs to serve her people. Portraits of a perpetual youthful maiden, forever pure and virginal, translated into a paradoxical symbol of power in the context of masculine dominance (King, 1990). Elizabeth’s virginal imagery was easily relatable to that of the biblical Mary, the mother of Jesus. This granted the impression of a Mary-figure for the newly established state religion of Protestantism, spawned Gloriana cults, and endowed Elizabeth with the characteristics of youthfulness, humility, and motherhood (an example of implicit personality theory) while encouraging honor and veneration of her power and authority (1990). Further, Elizabeth communicated strongly through speeches and poetry, that she was “remote, unattainable, chaste, but above all, as authoritative and superior” (Seber, 2014), reflecting attributes of the biblical Mary. I suspect she actively managed her image to maintain power against male pressure (as a female she would have had to submit to the authority of a husband, therefore losing her position an authoritative queen), from both her own country and others, as well as stall for time while fortifying her image as unshakable. The two modes of communication - visual imagery and formal speech/poetic writing – used the assumptions of attributes (implicit personality theory) along with careful speech and presentation to create the necessary impression of a beloved but powerful monarch.

Social Change and Welfare

The implication of impression management to social change (and/or welfare) is that an individual may not be fully authentic in their presentation of their intentions; people may be persuaded based upon a false or misleading impression or assumption of personality traits. For example, celebrities, such as the actor George Clooney, engage in philanthropic, diplomatic endeavors. He has been a United Nations Messenger of Peace, raising awareness about the genocide occurring in the Sudan and South Sudan. Despite criticism of celebrity advocacy for awareness of human rights atrocities in foreign countries (Kogen, 2015), his actions and choices of interviews have demonstrated implicit personality theory and his impression management strategy – he is a successful and popular actor, therefore it could be assumed that he is knowledgeable about global politics and can possibly suggest answers to pressing problems (even though he has no education, training, or political experience in global diplomacy; 2015). This could be interpreted as the halo effect, where many other positive attributes are attributed to him due to his appearance, celebrity status, or financial success. But, more than that, it makes him appear as a compassionate advocate for human rights, which adds to his audience’s favorable impression of him. He may have good intentions – to raise awareness of human rights violations – however, by emphasizing the “global other” that needs the West (namely the U.S.) to save them from their own naivete, he (and others like him) may be reinforcing a harmful, potentially oppressive narrative (Kogen, 2015). But, in the end, he may be more interested in building a favorable impression with his audience than finding or facilitating solutions to dictatorial atrocities (2015).

Ultimately, to effect social change or be an advocate for social welfare, an individual’s intentions must be crystal clear. Celebrities, due to their public visibility, may provide some causes the public voice needed for widespread awareness (Kogen, 2015); however, social welfare may be better served by those who are educated and specifically trained to appropriately deal with humanitarian efforts and are not interested in using their advocacy to build or maintain their celebrity persona.

Personal Construction of an Image

Throughout this paper I have suggested that impression management – the effort to control how others perceive us – is motivated by implicit personality theory (the tendency to assume that certain traits co-occur with other traits, behaviors, or appearances). I, too, have attempted to manage the impression I give to others. Specifically, I carefully construct online discussion posts and responses, knowing that what I post and submit is the only chance I get to influence the perception or impression of me. I am careful to edit for spelling and grammatical errors because I know those typos can degrade the impression I present (another example of implicit personality theory: typos may be assumed to be a lack of intelligence or writing ability). I edit content so posts are as concise and easy to read as possible, while still trying to meet all the requirements of the assignment. The downside to this is that I can come across as rather formal and stuffy. I sometimes loosen up and use more casual language, which I hope sounds more ‘warm and friendly,’ but I do not use this strategy until I feel more comfortable with the group, and most certainly not in the introduction nor first few weeks of the course. Perhaps I am fearful that I will not be taken seriously.

In a study of impression management and online graduate students, researchers found that 52 percent of students used self-promotion as a strategy in discussion posts, followed by exemplification, where students go beyond expectations to demonstrate commitment to studies (Crandall & Cunningham, 2017). Other strategies included ingratiation (to appear likable) and supplication (expressing vulnerability or neediness), which was used the least. I found it noteworthy that the findings were consistent for both first time graduate students and those who were well into their program of study (2017). Personally, I tend to use the self-promotion strategy less-so than the exemplification strategy – it is my belief that my work will speak louder than anything I can say about my previous accomplishments. And further, it feels very awkward to ‘toot my own horn,’ so to speak.

In my previous program, students were required to complete online courses and a few hybrid courses. We attended a week-long residency at the university to meet face-to-face and participate in lectures and workshops. It was amazing to meet my fellow classmates that I only knew through their online posts and responses. I was surprised to hear that the impression some of my classmates reported was that I seemed rather ‘intimidating,’ but they were careful to say that I was not intimidating in person. I have thought about that quite a lot, but since my main mode of ‘survival’ is exemplification, I am still at a loss as to how to present myself differently, especially online. Frankly, I do not feel very accomplished, certainly not at the level of Elizabeth I or George Clooney, at managing the impression I give to others.

 

 

References

Crandall, H., & Cunningham, C. (2017). Performing graduate student: Impression management in online discussion forums. The Northwest Journal of Communication, 45(1), 53-73. https://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=128619879&site=eds-live&scope=site

Dunning, D. (2007). Implicit personality theory. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs’ (Eds.) Encyclopedia of social psychology (pp. 466-467). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://web-a-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook?sid=dc893439-bf64-404a-8767-0503b707ddb2%40sessionmgr4006&ppid=pp_466&vid=0&format=EB

Ellis, R. P. (2020). Elizabeth I. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia. https://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ers&AN=88367412&site=eds-live&scope=site  

King, J. N. (1990). Queen Elizabeth I: Representations of the virgin queen. Renaissance Quarterly, 43(1), 30-74. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/stable/2861792?seq=16#metadata_info_tab_contents

Kogen, L. (2015). For the public good or just good publicity? Celebrity diplomacy and the ethics of representation. Mass Communication and Society, 18(1), 37-57. https://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=100696752&site=eds-live&scope=site

Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107(1), 34-37. https://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=1990-12233-001&site=eds-live&scope=site

Seber, H. (2014). Queen Elizabeth I’s self-representation through the Petrarchan convention. Journal of Faculty of Letters, 31(1), 227-238. https://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hlh&AN=95509765&site=eds-live&scope=site

 

 December 2020

 

The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Experience of Sarah Osborn

Sarah Osborn was born into Calvinist Protestant Puritanism where she was well-trained to understand God as a wrathful authority who knew humans unable to be anything but sinful. However, throughout all Sarah’s hardships and personal struggles, her concept of this all-knowing God adapted to the environment of societal change that was happening around her. Her story is one of evolving Christian understanding from trembling before an inscrutable, unknowable God to one who interacts and embraces humans through personal experiences. As a result of the influence of the Enlightenment and Millennialist movements that fueled the First and Second Great Awakenings, evangelicalism grew from 1720 – 1790, in part, because it offered Christians assurance of salvation and individual authority that was lacking in Calvinist Puritanism.

Calvinist thought that made the journey with the Puritans settling the new world was very clear concerning the human condition. Puritan beliefs were grounded in the understanding of God, the human condition, and predestination; Sarah was taught early that God was an unknowable sovereign who determined who was saved and who was eternally damned, that “Christ’s death had not redeemed all of humanity but only a small group of the ‘elect.’”[1] All humans were corrupted by the original sin of Adam and Eve and that “it was crucial for even the youngest to be exposed to the concepts of original sin, heaven, and hell.”[2] Calvinist Christians were “completely dependent on a transcendent and uncontrollable God,”[3] where no one could save themselves, and further, they could have no assurance of salvation from the inscrutable and unknowable God. She boldly wrote about her contemplated suicide as a young adult, as she was completely convinced she was “monstrous, God-provoking, and hell-deserving.”[4] In the midst of her struggle, she concluded that God had “punished her for disobeying her parents” and that she had been afflicted due to her own behavior.[5] It is clear from her writing that she was experiencing a deep need for assurance of her own salvation, as she could not see how she, a wretched sinner, could possibly be affirmed before the God she knew.

The growth of evangelicalism out of this Calvinist Puritan belief structure cannot be considered without acknowledging the influence of the Enlightenment’s radical “assumption that individuals had the freedom to create a better world.”[6] Enlightened thinkers advocated individual freedom, and freedom from the past, by suggesting that the traditional Christian view of the human condition – and everything else, for that matter – needed to be tested and proved through rationality and empirical evidence. As this new way of thinking pervaded social thinking, Christians took on the new language of experience as a way to prove the existence of God and a justification of their beliefs. For Christians like Sarah who struggled with uncertainty of salvation, it spoke to a need – it addressed doubts of an unknowable God; spiritual experiences were valid and authoritative when couched in the language of the Enlightenment. Rationally proving God was active in the lives of Christians by describing and experiencing emotional reactions to preaching resulting in conversion filled the need to finally know their eternal fate in certainty. It was the Enlightenment’s push for rational, empirical proof through experience that Christianity co-opted in the form of evangelism, as Brekus explains: 

"Earlier Christians had defined conversion in multiple ways – it could mean changing one’s life by going to church regularly, taking communion, studying the Bible, or living according to the Ten Commandments – but for evangelicals it meant an immediate, heartfelt change. True religion, they claimed, was ‘experimental.’ Influenced by the Enlightenment emphasis on personal experience as the foundation of knowledge, evangelicals did not view conversion as an intellectual assent to the truths of the Bible or as a slow, imperceptible turning to God; for them it was a ‘new sense’ that was real as the physical senses of seeing, hearing, or tasting. Because people could actually feel and know whether they had been born again, they could be virtually sure of their salvation."[7]

The push of individualism, freedom of thought, and the need for assurance of salvation spawned revivals across the colonies. Starting with Charles Whitefield and Gilbert Tennent, and then followed by others, revival preachers called sinners to experience the emotional, individual experience of conversion. Not only was this emotional experience proof of God working in the life of an individual, but it provided the authority of a testimony that one could rely upon as rational and empirical. Sarah, and many others, were desirous of assurance of salvation that was previously elusive. She “envied them, and she seems to have embraced the evangelical movement as her own because she longed for their confidence.”[8] 

Sarah began attending revivals and embraced evangelical thought where “she could say – with assurance – that she knew what mattered. She knew that she had been born again.”[9] Even though she continued to hold to the traditional Calvinist views of God, and that suffering and affliction were signs of God showing care, she embraced the assurance of salvation. In her quest for assurance, she wrote to Gilbert Tennent, a revival preacher, looking for his affirmation of her salvation. In this letter to Tennent she describes her “religious experience,”[10] and based upon that, he gave affirmation of God’s grace toward her. She was relieved and even stated that she was “restored as if were from the grave”[11] of doubts.

Evangelicalism focused heavily on an emotional conversion experience, one that made the seeker feel that God indeed was participating in their lives. In addition to this important conversion experience, spreading the gospel gave Christians a purpose - sharing the ‘good news’ of salvation and the assurance they had experienced. The complete authority of the Bible was of utmost importance, however spiritual experience and personal testimony was of such a priority that special training (such as seminary) was not required or needed; anyone with a testimony and a desire to share was qualified. Within this context of evangelicalism arose another movement, Millennialism, which focused on the prophecy of the last book of the Bible (Revelation). Millennialists believed that Christ would make his second appearance in the world any day, and that human history was, indeed, in the last days. This created a sense of urgency and need to convert sinners, as well as purging Christians of sinful behavior, in preparation of the world for the Second-Coming. Sarah was like many others who agreed with the Millennialists; the imminent return of Christ and the reality of the American Revolution resulted in an urgency and purpose which made people feel that they were part of a bigger picture, God’s greater plan. Spreading the gospel to all was foremost, as Sarah wrote, “I know not what is before us […] no not for an Hour, but would fain Hope the Glory of the Latter days is beginning to dawn.”[12]

During the Second Great Awakening, religious authority to share and interpret the Bible according to personal spiritual revelation inspired many religious innovations that challenged traditional views of divine revelation, property ownership, and family structures. Moreover, evangelicalism gave voice to marginalized groups, such as women and African Americans (both slaves and freed), due to the spiritual equality afforded to all according to the Bible. Encouraged by the urgency of the ‘last days,’ and Sarah’s desire to share the gospel, she moved into this new-found religious authority and gained a reputation for her fervor to encourage and pray with those who came to her home. Crowds including African Americans, boys, and women filled her kitchen to listen to her read from the Bible, council, and pray. Like other evangelicals, Sarah made a “determined effort to convert the enslaved” and wrote that she “ha[d] thought it a duty to encourage them”[13] Interestingly, due to Sarah’s history of failing health and hardship, people were “drawn to her because of her steadfast faith in the midst of suffering.”[14] It was only through the spiritual equality encouraged in evangelicalism that enabled a woman to function as an evangelical leader, if only from her home. In this way, she was able to model the embrace of suffering as the will of God, while evangelizing and spreading the gospel to those eager to hear. She utilized her spiritual liberty within evangelicalism to speak with authority and confidence of the assurance she herself had gained.

Evangelicalism had become an important mode of Christianity partly due to Christians, like Sarah, who responded to the need for assurance of salvation from a hidden, inscrutable Puritan God. This enlightened thought was a completely “new way of thinking about human knowledge – that marked a break with Puritan tradition.”[15] The rise of evangelicalism, as traced through the First and Second Great Awakenings, enabled Christians to feel the desired acceptance of God and assurance of salvation, as well as exercise a new sense of liberty and authority gained through spiritual experience. This newfound freedom allowed them to boldly share the message of the gospel as well as engage in a bigger purpose of God’s plan and the imminent return of Christ in the environment of the American Revolution.

 

---

[1] Brekus, Catherine A. Sarah Osborn's World: The Rise of Evangelical Christianity in Early America. New Haven: Yale University Press, 37

[2] Ibid., 38

[3] Ibid., 37

[4] Brekus, Sarah Osborn’s World., 70

[5] Ibid., 70

[6] Ibid., 7

[7] Brekus, Sarah Osborn’s World, 94

[8] Ibid., 95

[9] Ibid., 95

[10] Ibid., 122

[11] Ibid., 123

[12] Brekus, Sarah Osborn’s World, 251

[13] Brekus, Sarah Osborn’s World, 250- 251

[14] Ibid., 254

[15] Ibid., 97

 

March 2016

Considering mindfulness in the classroom.

*I wrote this article at the beginning of my Independent Study of curricula and practices available to teachers and school administration. It would be fruitful to revisit this topic to see if any progress has been made in the almost 4 years since this was written. If anything, the 'hype' that surrounded classroom mindfulness practices has abated to a certain degree, allowing the concepts of mindfulness to be 'absorbed' into the more palatable and acceptable 'social-emotional learning', which is devoid of the perceptions of spirituality inherent in anything labeled 'mindfulness.'

From a certain point of view, to introduce mindfulness to students takes creativity and innovation, and that there is no right (or wrong) way (Rechtschaffen, 2014). He stated that “it functions best when the teacher is experimenting with using his or her own life as a laboratory for exploring and deepening the practice of mindfulness” (p. xxi). It goes without saying that to teach anything, the teacher needs to be not only well-acquainted with the subject-matter as well as personal experience interacting with that subject – especially such a personal topic as mindfulness or meditation. And mindfulness is so personal; it requires the teacher and student to engage with moment-to-moment personal experience (sensations, feelings, surroundings). To teach from a pre-made curriculum without personal experience (both with the activities and a personal practice), I suspect, might not be successful.  And it does take ‘creativity and innovation’ to consider the students themselves, their context(s), and needs when developing lessons or activities for their participation.

The research article by Margaret Buchmann (1989) is connected to this thought. While not speaking of mindfulness specifically, she stated that the concept of practice (of teaching, not a meditation practice) “goes beyond describing what a teacher does or what many teachers happen to do, appealing instead to a concept of teaching as a virtual activity that is a bearer of good” (p. 57). She asserted that the time a teacher spends in contemplation of instruction and the recipients is necessary for “the intrinsic good of learning” (p. 57). Careful consideration of the purpose, students, and context are necessary for a beneficial result (giving usable and edifying tools of mindfulness to the teachers and students) – I would call that skillful (or wise) effort, mindfulness, and concentration.

When we don’t listen to our students, we are in a perpetual battle against them. When we don’t honor the amount of physical movement kids need, we have to fight them or medicate them into sitting at a desk all day. When we don’t offer students a healthy way to express difficult emotions, we end up being perpetually frustrated by their behaviors. When we don’t tach them how to pay attention, we end up yelling at them when they are distracted. So many teachers have expressed grief to me because they feel as if they are in a war with the very kids they want to help. (Rechtschaffen, 2014, p. 14)

Considering indiscipline, the most common reported were distractibility, anxiety, worry, self-doubt, and the need for perfection (Harrison, 2012). In addition, teacher conceptions of indiscipline influences how they will react or respond to them. Research has shown that teachers attributed indiscipline to individual characteristics and family factors, and thus manage the situations of indiscipline principally with actions involving the students with their families. (Silva, 2016). It seems teachers perceive most behavior challenges as caused by influences outside of their control. The researchers concluded that it is “very important to develop actions of intervention addressed to teachers with goals to expand their vision on the situations that can generate indiscipline at school;” in other words, there may be some conditions within the teachers’ control that can be addressed such as instruction, materials used, and school rules.

The situation is clear: everyone involved is human and not perfect! And often behavioral challenges are motivated by situations and perceptions that are not clear. I have witnessed these teacher conceptions of indiscipline, and had conversations with teachers about challenges within their classrooms. I believe that mindfulness techniques have the potential to foster (teacher) compassion toward self and others that may be valuable in mediating some causes of indiscipline challenges. While classroom mindfulness practices may not provide lasting solutions to any of the long-standing issues of indiscipline in schools, it may help may reduce stress and provide tools (for teachers and students) to become more aware. 

Despite the benefits of mindfulness activities and a meditation practice there remains the matter of the hype surrounding the research. To put it bluntly, “misinformation and poor methodology associated with past studies of mindfulness may lead public consumers to be harmed, misled, and disappointed,” (Dam, 2017, p. 36). Interestingly, Goleman and Davidson state the same; Goleman was awarded his doctorate with what would be considered now somewhat faulty research methods (2017).

“As we’ve seen, our somewhat flawed research methods during our Harvard graduate school days reflected the general quality – or lack of it – during the first decades of meditation studies, the 1970s and 1980s. Today our initial research attempts would not meet our own standards to be included here. Indeed, a large proportion of meditation studies in one way or another fail to meet the gold standards for research methods that are essential for publication in the top, “A-level” scientific journals.” (Goleman, 2017, p. 77)

The Dam article calls out the problem of media and marketing influence and use of study results, sometimes glossing or hyping the results to get the big headlines or sell products: “published journal abstracts and media reports about obtained results often gloss over such crucial variations, leading to inappropriate comparisons between what might be fundamentally different states, experiences, skills, and practices” (2017, p. 40). The article was pretty pointed about nailing down certain aspects, most especially the definition of ‘mindfulness.’

Although some students take naturally to mindfulness, it is “not a magic bullet,” said Diana Winston, the director of mindfulness education at the U.C.L.A. center. She said the research thus far was “inconclusive” about how effective mindfulness was for children who suffered from trauma-related disorders, for example. It is “a slow process,” Ms. Winston added. “Just because kids sit and listen to the bell doesn’t necessarily mean they’ll be more kind.” (Brown, 2007)

For the record, mindfulness can be defined in simple terms both children and adults can understand and practice: mindfulness is paying attention, in the present moment, on purpose. Even if classroom mindfulness practices are not always an effective behavior management tool in the classroom, teaching and modeling simple daily mindfulness is a necessary and beneficial life skill for everyone involved, both inside and outside the classroom.

References

Brown, P. L. (2007). In the classroom, a new focus on quieting the mind. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/16/us/16mindful.html

Dam, N. T., Vugt, M. K., Vago, D. R., Schmalzl, L., Saron, C. D., Olendzki, A., . . . Meyer, D. E. (2017). Mind the hype: A critical evaluation and prescriptive agenda for research on mindfulness and meditation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(1). 

Goleman, D., and Davidson, R. (2017). Altered traits: Science reveals how meditation changes your mind, brain, and body. Avery Books.

Harrison, J. R., Vannest, K., Davis, J., & Reynolds, C. (2012). Common problem behaviors of children and adolescents in general education classrooms in the United States. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 20, 55-64.

Rechtschaffen, D. J. (2014). The way of mindful education: Cultivating well-being in teachers and students. W.W. Norton & Company.

Siegel, D. (2011). Mindsight: The new science of personal transformation. Bantam Books.

Silva, A. M., Negreiros, F., & Albano, R. M. (2016). Indiscipline in public school: Teacher conceptions and intervention. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 3(1), 1-10.

Original article written September 2018, edited 2022.

When the True City Falls

 

When the True City Falls

Socrates states it right at the beginning – we are not so clever. I am assuming he included himself in that statement. In Book II of Plato’s Republic, he doesn’t truly believe that he can help his friends figure out the mystery of which is better – justice or injustice. However, to his credit, he states he cannot refuse his help, even after a failed first attempt, as it would seem impious of him to refuse. Therefore, his plan to “track down” justice and injustice [1] to fully understand the truth about their benefits was to find it, justice or injustice, in a larger object. Socrates’ logic says that if it can be found in the larger, then likewise we should be able to find it within a smaller one, namely the human soul. At the point it is found, it stands to reason that we will be able to see which is more beneficial. The method proposed is to build a hypothetical city, the larger object, from the ground up. From answering the question of why a city is formed, to how many people are required, Socrates, with help, decides why and how a city takes shape. The result is Socrates’ true city - the healthy city. In this paper, I will explore the model of a city as it goes from healthy to unhealthy, consider what is right or wrong considering the metaphor of health, and contemplate whether a city can be healthy and unhealthy simultaneously.

People have needs, both physically and socially. Using the presuppositions that people are different from other earthly creatures in that they are able create what they need rather than have it supplied through their environment, and that people cannot survive without each other, Socrates starts to build the city that will enable people to come together to supply and meet their human needs. The basic needs of people include food and fresh water, shelter, clothing or bodily protection from the elements, safety for rest, and intimacy with others. Socrates and the others determine those skilled crafters are to provide food, shelter, and clothing for the entire city, rather than having each individual attempt to be an expert in all the needed crafts. Further, this division of labor or specialization is key to this city, as it allows each contributor, or producer, the opportunity to best utilize their natural abilities while contributing to the needs of the whole. As the city expands to include more producers, all the physical needs of the people are met – food, shelter, and clothing – with producers being supported by secondary producers, merchants, and wage-earners who contribute the necessary tools and services needed for successful function of the city. Socrates summarizes by recounting that “they’ll produce bread, wine, clothes, and shoes…build houses…wear adequate clothing and shoes...” as well as cook, feast, and drink from their produce, have sweet-smelling beds on which to recline, give worship to their gods, and enjoy sexual intimacy without exceeding their means. [2] He even allows for pleasures such as salt and desserts to make life satisfying. This life that results from the imagined city, accordingly, would be one that is desirable and provides for everyone’s needs.

This city provides for all human needs and the participants are not expected or required to provide anything outside the bounds of their skill or expertise within their specialized craft. Nor are they expected to produce more than what is necessary for the city – there is no need for excess. Each will “live in peace and good health, and when they die at a ripe old age, they’ll bequeath a similar life to their children,” [3] and it is this city that Socrates deems the healthy city, the true city. All is right with this city; everyone is fulfilled and has purpose within the city, not only in their physical need, but in their social need, as well. They are able to feast and enjoy intimacy. They have children and can worship their deities (express gratitude) as they wish. They are able to pass down this good life to their descendants, ensuring they also will be content and satisfied in their life. Could there be anything wrong with this hypothetical city?

It would appear so, as the dialogue continues to reveal desires and expectations beyond these basic human needs. The character Glaucon suggests that there is something wrong with this city – that people desire finer things than the spices and desserts Socrates suggests earlier. [4] He states that people need fine furniture and delicacies in order to enjoy life to the full. Glaucon expresses an expectation of luxury within the city that Socrates is willing to entertain, for this is where the healthy city will become unhealthy – the progression that leads to the introduction of injustice. In addition to the expectation of fine furnishings and delicacies, Socrates adds perfumes and incense, prostitutes and pastries, and expensive decorations such as embroidery, gold, and ivory. [5] These expensive additions to the available products within a city would most certainly whet an appetite for more than basic needs; in fact, such expectations lead to war with neighboring communities over land possession. A sense of competition or coveting arises within the city when one desires the possessions or privilege of another. The produce of the city would then be classified according to value: basic, finer, or finest. The egalitarian sharing of products in the healthy city is now lost in a hierarchy of privilege and elitism – all feeling they deserve finery above what they basically need. This city has become infected and unhealthy in its desires, expectations, and ultimately, greed.

This metaphor equating the city to a body, either healthy or unhealthy (one with a fever [6]), is appropriate to describe the introduction of expectations and greed into the city. A body is healthy when all parts of the whole are working at optimum capacity, contributing what is needed when it is needed – like the healthy city where everyone contributes what is needed for a satisfying human life. Conversely, the unhealthy body is one where parts of the body are impeded or unwilling to contribute what is needed at the moment of need. The producers may still be producing what is needed for the basic needs of the city, but so much more is desired and expected. The whole city becomes out of balance when one crafter’s product is valued higher than others.  Competition results while the motivation for quality production can be overshadowed by a drive to garner higher demand.  Not only are the producers distracted by demand (or lack, thereof), they have an unnecessary expectation of luxury themselves. Perhaps they will no longer want to do what is necessary to produce the needed product for the city, instead yearning for status or authority over others. Thus greed, individually and socially, is the infection that causes a city to be ill and respond with a fever. When the body is exposed to disease or illness, the body responds by raising temperature to kill the intruding and harmful organism, and white cells are sent to a foreign object within the body to surround the object for the purpose of protection, evicting it from the body. Working together, the high temperature fever and white blood cells both immobilize the invader and eliminate it from the body. For Socrates, “those same desires that are most of all responsible for the bad things that happen to cities and the individuals in them” [7] is exactly the infection causing the fever in the unhealthy city. The expectation of deserved luxury, the lack of contentment, and desired status and authority over others causes the healthy city to become feverish and ill.

Cities are necessary because people cannot survive without each other. This presupposition finds truth in the idealistic healthy model of a city, but it is worthwhile to contemplate whether the healthy city and the unhealthy city can co-exist. More specifically, can both the healthy city and the unhealthy city be the same city at the same time? It could be said that both the healthy and unhealthy city provide the basic needs of the people, including food, shelter, and clothing. However, in the unhealthy city, people lower in a system of hierarchy (lower-class) may have more difficulty acquiring these basic needs due to social and economic restrictions. It also be argued that other needs such as safety for rest and intimacy with others could be seriously impeded with the introduction of unhealthy greed into the city. No one can feel completely safe when their livelihood has been consumed with thoughts of competition to be better than the next producer, striving to acquire more luxury, or manipulating situations or others to gain status or authority over others. Further, when a city is attacking their neighbors for needed land for additional production of luxury items, no one is safe from neighboring armies reacting in retaliation. When this situation exists within and around a city, no one can experience safety to rest in peace – there is no peace. And, when there is no peace, intimacy between people is most certainly strained. Who can you trust if everyone is striving for themselves and greedily coveting the possessions and status of others? Relationships are weakened, families are strained, and individualism is reinforced when everyone is focused upon themselves rather than the good of the city. I believe the answer is no – the healthy city and the unhealthy city are at odds with one another and certainly are unable to co-exist. As oil cannot mix with water, I don’t believe health and ill-health, or justice and injustice, can ultimately exist simultaneously. I think Socrates believed the same.

References

Plato, G. M. A. Grube, and Plato. "Book II." In Plato's Republic. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub., 1992.

[1] Plato’s Republic, Book II, Line 367d

[2] Book II, Line 372b

[3] Book II, Line 372d

[4] Book II, Line 372e

[5] Book II, Line 373b

[6] Book II, Line 373a

[7] Book II, Line 373e

 

March 2015

The Scientific Skeptic

The Scientific Skeptic: The Aura Photographer

This last weekend I attended a local show of artists specializing in, what I would call, the ‘dark arts’ – mysteries and conspiracies, crystals and magic, horror and the occult, and ‘goth’ art. Among the illustrators, mixed media artists, authors, and psychic readers, there was a young man offering his services as an aura photographer. For $25, I could be photographed with his special camera against a neutral background, and receive not only the photo showing my aura, but a multi-page report about my personality and future.

Reading the energy auras of others (usually by someone claiming an ability to ‘see’) and photographing auras are part of what is considered parapsychology - the study of paranormal or psychic phenomenon – which falls outside the accepted scientific field of psychology. And, because it cannot be scientifically (empirically or definitively) tested, it is considered pseudoscience. Therefore, I doubt the claim that personality type or traits, let alone my future, can be determined by ‘seeing’ or photographing energy auras of individuals.

A research question to challenge this claim might be: How does the energy emitted from an individual indicate personality type and could the ‘reading’ change due to emotional/mood fluctuations? My reasoning is that there would likely be more energy emanating from an individual when they were angry or agitated than when they were calm or still, thus producing a different colored aura that would indicate a different personality type. To apply the scientific method to this research question with the aim of finding empirical evidence to refute the claim, I would develop a hypothesis such as: If an individual was emotionally agitated when their aura was read (or photographed), then their personality type could be misidentified.

To test my hypothesis, an individual could be photographed, using the specialty camera, several times during different moods or emotions. I would predict that those photographs would show different colors during different types of emotions, especially agitation, frustration, or during relaxation or meditative states. To collect data, I could enlist participants that could either self-identify their personality type or take an existing personality test to identify their personality type. They would then be photographed multiple times in one day (morning, afternoon, evening), and recording their emotional states at each time. This could be repeated a couple of weeks later for more data; the same individuals could be used, or it could be new participants.

The collected data - photographs and the known personality type for each participant – could then be analyzed for correct or incorrect identification. Conclusions could be derived from the findings; if a large percentage of error was revealed between the aura readings and the reported personality types of the participants, then it could be suggested that participants’ emotional states could have caused the differences. If there were no differences, and the readings were consistent despite emotion/mood changes, it could be suggested that emotional agitation did not affect the energy emitted from an individual, and the personality type interpreted would be constant. Another factor to be considered would be whether the interpreted personality type from the aura reading and reported personality type (from the individual or a test) were alike. However, the major limitation in this study design is using personality types as a measure, since they, too, are often considered pseudoscience. Using a control of known personality types would deem this study invalid, unreliable, and certainly not credible.

Invalidity and unreliability are hallmarks of pseudoscience; concepts and theories understood to be pseudoscience are not testable, or falsifiable, with the scientific method (Shermer, 2011). That leaves the pseudoscience of aura readings and photography in the realm of alternative methods of explanation or justification of belief (“fixation of belief,” are ways in which individuals accept and believe ideas; Rosnow & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 3). There are three alternative ways of explanation other than the empirical scientific method: the method of tenacity, the method of authority, and the a priori method (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 2013). I think an individual might believe the conclusions of an aura reading for any of these reasons, so I will explore each one.

The method of tenacity relies heavily on the way things have always been done, with inflexibility to change (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 2013). Aura readings and photography have been around since the 1970s, at the start of the New Age movement, and is an accepted part of the paranormal ‘community’ (Wikipedia, n.d.). Some may believe aura readings are valid simply because of the length of time the technique has been around, or because they are part of a group of people who consider it legitimate. This method of tenacity is different from the scientific method because it is not open to change, new approaches, or challenging research findings.

The second alternative method of explanation is also not like the scientific method. The method of authority is believing an idea or concept because someone in authority believes it or says others should believe it (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 2013). Those considered influential or authority figures (spiritual leaders or celebrities) can give aura readings validity with their approval or participation. However, this is different from the scientific method that does not rely on any individual’s opinion but is built on the repeated testing of variables. The scientific method relies on results and research findings for conclusions, not someone’s opinion, even if they are in a position of authority.

Finally, and probably the most prevalent alternative method of explanation, is the a priori method. This method depends on one’s own opinion, reasoning, and logic to determine whether an idea or concept is acceptable (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 2013). I think those who trust their own instincts, reasoning, or logic may accept aura readings are valid if it says what they want to hear or if it agrees with what they already want to believe about themselves or the nature of their energy. This subjective method – I consider it the ‘subject set of one,’ – is different from the structured scientific method of repetitive testing (with acceptable sample sizes that that can be generalized to a population of interest) that is as objective and unbiased as possible. While the a priori method utilizes more reasoning and logic, it is biased and unreliable.

Back at the ‘dark arts’ artist show, I tried to be as objective and unbiased as possible while I was chatting with the young man selling aura photographs. I was hoping my face did not give away my skepticism – he was a very nice man and I didn’t want to offend him. As I leafed through his example photos, I tried to discern whether the aura colors matched the faces staring back at me. I asked him if he had any customers that day, and he said no. That was too bad. I would have liked to observe the procedure and a customer response. I am not sure it would have changed my skepticism, however.

 

credit: Howard Minton

References

Aura (paranormal). (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aura_(paranormal)

Rosnow, R. L., & Rosenthal, R. (2013). Beginning behavioral research: A conceptual primer (7th ed.). Pearson.

Shermer, M. (2011). What is pseudoscience? https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-pseudoscience/

 

January 2020